Chapter 2: Forest and Wildlife Resources
Biodiversity and Why It Matters
Biodiversity or biological diversity is the immense variety of life forms — plants, animals and micro-organisms — and the ecosystems in which they live and interact. India is one of the world's richest countries in biodiversity, with about 8% of the total number of species in the world (estimated 1.6 million species). Humans depend on this web of life; our forests and wildlife are integral to the quality of the air, water and soil that sustain us. The degradation of these resources therefore directly threatens human survival.
Flora and Fauna in India — The Scale of Loss
Many species are dwindling in number. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), some estimates suggest that at least 10 per cent of India's recorded wild flora and 20 per cent of its mammals are on the threatened list. Many of these have already reached a critical stage. The cheetah, pink-headed duck, mountain quail and forest spotted owlet are examples of species that may already be extinct in India.
IUCN Classification of Species
Species are classified by conservation status. This is a favourite exam table:
| Category | Meaning | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Normal species | Population levels considered normal for survival | Cattle, sal, pine, rodents |
| Endangered species | In danger of extinction; survival difficult if negative factors continue | Black buck, crocodile, Indian wild ass, Indian rhino, lion-tailed macaque, sangai (Manipur brow-antlered deer) |
| Vulnerable species | Population has declined to a level where it is likely to move to endangered if negative factors continue | Blue sheep, Asiatic elephant, Gangetic dolphin |
| Rare species | Small populations; may move to endangered/vulnerable if the negative factors affecting them continue | Himalayan brown bear, wild Asiatic buffalo, desert fox, hornbill |
| Endemic species | Found only in a particular area, isolated by natural or geographical barriers | Andaman teal, Nicobar pigeon, Andaman wild pig, mithun (Arunachal) |
| Extinct species | No longer found at all — may be extinct from a local area, region, country or the whole earth | Asiatic cheetah, pink-headed duck |
Causes of Depletion of Flora and Fauna
- Expansion of the railway network, agriculture, commercial and scientific forestry and mining activities since colonial times.
- Agricultural expansion: between 1951 and 1980 over 26,200 sq km of forest was converted into agricultural land; forest clearing for shifting cultivation (jhum) still continues.
- Enrichment plantations: promoting a few favoured commercially valuable species (e.g. teak monoculture) wiped out other species — teak monoculture harmed the natural forest.
- Development projects: large-scale river valley projects submerged forests; over 5,000 sq km of forest was cleared for such projects since 1951.
- Mining: e.g. dolomite mining in the Buxa Tiger Reserve, West Bengal, disturbed the natural habitat of many species.
- Grazing and fuelwood collection, unequal access, over-consumption and unequal distribution of wealth — the rich consume more and cause greater ecological damage.
The destruction of forests and wildlife is also a social problem: it hits the poorest people hardest. Among these, women — who bear the responsibility for firewood, fodder, water and other subsistence needs — are affected most.
The Himalayan Yew — A Case of Over-exploitation
The Himalayan Yew (Taxus wallichiana) is a medicinal plant found in Himachal Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh. A chemical compound called taxol is extracted from its bark, needles, twigs and roots and has been successfully used to treat some cancers — it is the biggest-selling anti-cancer drug in the world. The species is under great threat due to over-exploitation; thousands of yew trees have dried up in various parts of Himachal and Arunachal.
Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India
Conservation preserves the ecological diversity and our life-support systems — water, air and soil — and the genetic diversity of plants and animals for better growth and breeding. The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act was implemented in 1972, providing for protected areas, an all-India list of protected species and a ban on hunting. Central and many state governments established national parks and wildlife sanctuaries.
- Project Tiger (1973): one of the world's most successful conservation ventures, launched to protect the tiger from extinction. Corbett (Uttarakhand), Sundarbans (West Bengal), Bandhavgarh (MP), Sariska (Rajasthan), Manas (Assam) and Periyar (Kerala) are among India's tiger reserves.
- Central government has also announced projects for protecting specific animals under threat — the rhinoceros, the Asiatic lion, the crocodile and the Asian elephant.
- In the 2000s notifications added many plants to the protected list, extending protection beyond mammals and birds to butterflies, moths, beetles, dragonflies and even plants.
Types and Distribution of Forests (Legal Categories)
Depending on the right of ownership and management, forests are classified into three types. This is a key exam table:
| Type | Meaning | Notes / Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Reserved Forests | More than half of the total forest land; regarded as the most valuable as far as conservation of forest and wildlife resources is concerned. Permanently earmarked for producing timber and other forest produce; grazing and cultivation not permitted. | Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Maharashtra have large percentages of reserved forests. |
| Protected Forests | Almost one-third of the total forest area; protected from further depletion. | Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Odisha and Rajasthan have a bulk of it under protected forests. |
| Unclassed Forests | Other forests and wastelands belonging to both government and private individuals and communities. | All the north-eastern states and parts of Gujarat have a very high percentage under unclassed forests managed by local communities. |
Reserved and protected forests are together referred to as permanent forest estates maintained for producing timber and other forest produce, and for protective reasons. Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under permanent forests.
Community and Government in Conservation
- Sacred groves — the forests of God and Goddesses: Nature worship is an age-old tribal belief; virgin forests dedicated to deities are left untouched (Sarnas of Chota Nagpur, Kavus of Kerala). The Mundas and Santhals of Chhota Nagpur region worship mahua and kadamba trees; tribals of Odisha and Bihar worship tamarind and mango during weddings.
- Bishnois of Rajasthan: the blackbuck (chinkara), nilgai and peacocks are integral to their community and are protected by them.
- Chipko Movement (Himalayas): resisted deforestation and showed that community afforestation with indigenous species can be enormously successful.
- Beej Bachao Andolan (Tehri) and Navdanya: showed that diversified crop production without synthetic chemicals is economically viable.
- Joint Forest Management (JFM): first formalised in Odisha in 1988; local communities manage and restore degraded forests in return for a share of forest products, fostering conservation.
Map Work (CBSE Prescribed)
There are NO CBSE-prescribed map items from this chapter. Wildlife and forest distribution are studied for understanding, but no location, labelling or identification item from this chapter appears in the Board map question.